Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

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Virendra
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Virendra »

peter wrote:From James Tod:

"The contentions for empire during the vacillating dynasty of the Lodi kings of Dehli preserved the sterile lands of Maroo from their cupidity and a second dynasty the Shere shahi intervened ere the sons of Jada were summoned to measure swords with the Imperialists. But in (S 1572) 1516 a.d. a desultory band of Pathans made an incursion during the fair of the Teej held at the town of Peepar and carried of one hundred and forty of the maidens of Maroo. The tidings of the rape of the virgin Rajpootnis were conveyed to Soojoh who put himself at the head of such vassals as were in attendance and pursued overtook and redeemed them with the loss of his own life but not without a full measure of vengeance against the northern barbarian The subject is one chosen by the itinerant minstrel of Maroo who at the fair of the Teej still sings the rape of the one hundred and forty virgins of Peepar and their rescue by their cavalier prince at the price of his own blood"

Eerily similar to the incident in Africa
It was Satal I believe, not Suja. Will check later and confirm.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

An archaeologist from Deccan College has a small personal collection of Maratha weapons.

He plans to erect a museum in Panaji/Goa of Maratha weapons and need weapons, he is ready to pay whatever the cost.

If anyone has any lead/offer/help/know a person who deal in such weapons in and around Mumbai or Goa may kindly reply here.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Yayavar »

Murugan wrote:Good Info about Alexander's 'wars' in India

Also some references about at least two invasion of India, one by Persian Cyrus, and also one assyrian queen Semirami before Alexander. This is new.

Falied Invasion of India
http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/histor ... f-macedon/
I was asked to give a talk at my child's school a few years back. I chose to talk about this event and shared Oliver stones movie excerpts and the above discussion exhorting the students to always question and think before accepting 'stated truths'. Had a dual purpose too...give a more positive picture of Indian history.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by negi »

^ Don't know about the real history but one thing is very clear from above i.e all other countries take their history very seriously, as someone whose family is in the armed forces I know for a fact that the study of history in India and even in the defense circles in desh has a heavy British slant it is refreshing to know that Marshal Zhukov chose to touch upon Indian history when addressing the Indian troops.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by anupmisra »

Murugan wrote:Good Info about Alexander's 'wars' in India

Also some references about at least two invasion of India, one by Persian Cyrus, and also one assyrian queen Semirami before Alexander. This is new.

Falied Invasion of India
http://www.sanskritimagazine.com/histor ... f-macedon/
From the article:
The Greek historian says after the battle with the Pauravas, the badly bruised and rattled Macedonians panicked when they received information further from Punjab lay places “where the inhabitants were skilled in agriculture, where there were elephants in yet greater abundance and men were superior in stature and courage”.
Men from the Yamuna-Ganga valleys were superior in stature and strength!! That must hurt the paki HS&D.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Can anybody post a picture of Vita (corded lance), a typical maratha weapon
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_23658 »

Murugan wrote:Can anybody post a picture of Vita (corded lance), a typical maratha weapon
[youtube]rIK56rbb7Aw#t=303[/youtube]

Am pretty sure that's a Vita that Baji Prabhu is throwing at 5 mins onwards, but cant really see it being thrown cleanly and pulled back, its a very old movie :).
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by wig »

Evolution of Indian military: From Panipat to Festubert

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/indi ... 541983.cms

Tracing the evolution of Indian military from 'Army of Hindustan' in the 18th century to the Indian Army in WWI

Part 1
Late afternoon on January 14, 1761, Maratha generals and soldiers fleeing the battlefield at Panipat took with them an indelible memory of Ibrahim Khan Gardi's artillery and musketeers wreaking havoc on the enemy "like a knife slicing through butter". Despite their thinning ranks, the French-trained Telangi infantry, who called themselves Gardis in the honour of their illustrious commander, fought like true professionals. Though predominantly Muslim, they stayed loyal to the Brahmin Peshwa and fought a Muslim coalition, ignoring blandishments and threats till the very end. If all Maratha generals had stuck to the original plan drawn up by Ibrahim Khan-that of forming a hollow infantry square and forcing a passage to Delhi by destroying the Afghan right flank-the result of the Third Battle of Panipat could have been different.

But despite the defeat, Panipat made it clear to the Indians that subsequent battles in the subcontinent will be won by the boom of artillery and rattle of musketry. According to Dr Uday S Kulkarni's exhaustive account of the battle titled 'Solstice At Panipat: 14 January 1761', Maratha generals like Scindia, Holkar and Gaekwad, who were staunch critics of Maratha commander-in-chief Sadashivrao Bhau's touching faith in Ibrahim Khan Gardi and his European style of fighting, would change their minds and increasingly repose faith in European-styled drilled infantry and artillery. In fact, they would also abandon their traditional strength of guerrilla warfare or ganimi kava, a process that started right from the Panipat battlefield. But the Marathas weren't alone in this: soon, most Indian rulers were racing one another to modernise their armies. This phase also saw a gradual departure from the mediaeval practice of assigning more weightage to cavalry than any other combat arm.

But it was Nawab Shuja ud-Daulah of Avadh who was among the first to utilise lessons learnt at Panipat. He had allied himself with Ahmed Shah Abdali, but neither he nor his forces took any active part in the battle. In 1764, his moderately Europeanised army led by westerners-including Walter Reinhardt Sombre or 'Samru sahib', the husband of Begum Samru-gave a tough time to the English at Buxar, the first battle fought by the English for territorial control in India. Shuja's army also had Rohillas and Afghan cavalry, who were mostly veterans of Panipat. His artillery directed devastating fire on the British. But the British held out with the wily Hector Munro in command and some disciplined musketry by the infantry, the backbone of which was formed by over 5,000 sepoys. Shuja's forces, with all their bravery, had no answer for the Anglo-Indian bayonet charge.

Despite the defeat, Shuja continued to modernise his army, raising 18 European-styled infantry battalions by the 1770s. But he would never get the chance to measure swords with the English again as Avadh became a vassal state of the English after Buxar.

Indian history books today, while recognising Buxar as a watershed moment in our national history, skip another important point: that it was at Buxar that the identity of the Indian sepoy as a match-winner for the British was established (though four years earlier at Plassey, Robert Clive was disappointed with Indian officers and made it a rule that Indian troops will only be officered by Europeans-a condition that stuck on until the end of First World War). And it was at Buxar that the foundation of the Indian Army of today was laid. From that point on, the sepoy would be the backbone of English armies conquering different Indian states one by one. The English would gradually develop a blind faith in the Indian sepoy: a phase that would last until 1857 and continue again towards the end of the 19th century.

For the Marathas, it was Mahadji Scindia who broke new ground in Europeanisation of his army. Scindia employed a brilliant French mercenary, Benoit de Boigne, to raise a brigade that could dress, march and fight as a European army. A former officer in the French, Russian and Honourable East India Company's armies, de Boigne taught Scindia's men the British musket drill and everything else that he knew on the condition that he wouldn't be made to fight the English with whom he had cordial relations. Mahadji's meteoric rise as the dominant power in the north of India hinged on the shoulders of this able Frenchman. Mahadji's new, formidable army came to be known as 'Fauj-i-Hind' or 'Army of Hindustan'. By 1790, it had 37,000 soldiers trained in the European fashion, and 330 pieces of artillery. But after Mahadji's death in 1794, his less capable grandnephew and successor Daulat Rao Scindia would fritter away the gains of his predecessor. He would wage fratricidal wars with other Maratha chieftains and lose both territory and reputation fighting the British. His army stopped attracting talent, both due to his own apathy and some shameless nepotism practised by his French general, Perron. But they would still give Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, his "toughest battle" at Assaye.

Elsewhere in the south, Nawab Hyder Ali was raising a formidable army. Hyder was impressed with the British and wanted their military assistance to modernise his army. The British were reluctant, which led Hyder to seek help from the French. With French help, Hyder modernised his infantry and artillery, but unlike other Indian powers of the day that ignored cavalry, Hyder's focus was always on his cavalry and he used it with great skill, always leading it from the front. In fact, the Mysore cavalry, with its dash and daring, had built for itself a fearsome reputation among its rivals. In the 1770s, Hyder Ali had 20,000 cavalry, 20 battalions of infantry and an unknown quantity of guns. Even the English grudgingly admitted Mysore cavalry's superiority, though they referred to its actions as that of a swarm of locusts on crops.

Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan also abandoned the common Indian practice of engaging militias raised by provincial governors in war time and went for a fully centralised recruiting and training system. A very rudimentary form of regimental system was also followed. But by Tipu Sultan's time, Mysore artillery had attained a high degree of finesse. Tipu introduced a rocket artillery corps organised in kushoons. Tipu's guns were also known for their longer range and accuracy. It's not known how many artillery pieces he had; but at the fall of Srirangapatnam and Tipu's death in 1799, the British found 421 gun carriages, 176 12 pounders and 4,12,000 iron round shots ranging from four to 42 pounds inside the fort.

A few years after Tipu Sultan's collapse, the process of the end of the Maratha Empire began as well. The Peshwa signed the Treaty of Bassein with the English in 1802, agreeing to station a 6,000-strong British force in his territory. The Poona Horse (now 17 Horse, Indian Army) was thus born.

After the Third Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1818, the Maratha Empire ceased to exist and the Peshwa's army was disbanded. Many former soldiers of the Peshwa found service in the Bombay Army of the HEIC. They were placed in the Poona Horse, Bombay Sappers and Miners and Maratha Light Infantry. Among the first to join these regiments were the Gardis.

Up north, with the decline of the Scindia's power and due to irregularities in pay, many of Scindia's well-trained troops left him and sought greener pastures to the west. They soon found a new employer who was willing to pay them more, both respect and money. He was Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the lion of Punjab.

Ranjit Singh wanted to modernise his army. The visionary ruler knew a clash with the British was inevitable at some point in the future and he wanted to be fully prepared for that. He employed Europeans of different nationalities to train his troops. Ranjit Singh organised his infantry on French lines, cavalry on British as well as traditional lines, and artillery on European lines. The English were so alarmed by this tremendous expansion of force that they ordered the arrest of any Frenchman trying to cross the Sutlej.

Despite the build-up, the clash that Ranjit Singh foresaw didn't happen in his lifetime but after his death and when the Sikh state was in considerable decay.

Just before the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Sikh army had grown bigger than the state could support. According to UK-based military historian Amarpal Singh's book, 'The First Anglo-Sikh War', in 1839, the Lahore state had an army consisting just under 47,000 regular infantry,16,000 regular and irregular cavalry, and 500 pieces of artillery. The artillery was mostly manned by Muslim gunners.

But after Ranjit Singh's death, there was a period of anarchy that saw too many court intrigues and rapid decline in leadership of the army. The army, though, continued to expand (over 80,000 in 1845) and went out of control. It functioned through village panchayats that were subservient to none. The soldiers were paid twice the sum that a sepoy in HEIC's army received every month. The soldiers also resorted to loot and plunder whenever they wanted.

Amarpal Singh argues that the Lahore state engineered a situation whereby the growing influence of this republican Sikh army could be curbed-by crossing the Sutlej and inviting an English attack in 1845.

All through the war, the Sikh commanders abandoned the field, leaving their men to fend for themselves, at early stages of battles. At Ferozeshah, for instance, the Sikhs had clearly dominated the battlefield with their artillery completely destroying the British artillery, and infantry returning fire with amazing rapidity. Sitaram, a sepoy in the British army, as quoted by Singh in his book, pretty much summed up the ground reality when he wrote: "Volleys of musketry were delivered by us at close quarters, and were returned just as steadily by the enemy. In all the previous actions in which I had taken part one or two volleys at short range were as much as the Sirkar's (the British state's) enemies could stand; but these Sikhs gave volley for volley, and never gave way until nearly decimated..."

Yet, instead of moving forward and decimating the enemy, the commander, Lal Singh, ordered a general retreat, much to the chagrin of his own troops. The Sikhs abandoned all their guns and equipment and left.


(Lal Singh let his army down when he withdrew at Ferozeshah during the First Anglo-Sikh War)
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Arrian (Indica)

Indica, 16.6 –

Indian infantry have a bow of the height of the owner. This they poise on the ground and set
their left foot against it. They draw the bowstring a very long way back, for their arrows are
little short of three cubits and nothing can stand against an arrow shot by an Indian archer.


‘in the left hand they carry small shields of rawhide, narrower than their bodies, but not much
shorter’ (Indica, 16. 08 ).

while some men carry javelins instead of bows, ‘all carry a broad sword, not less than three cubits long’ (Indica, 16.9)

‘they wear a linen tunic down to the middle of the calf, one garment thrown around their shoulders, and another wound around their heads’ (Indica, 16.2).
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Image
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

I was not able to copy the italics from the PDF, it was showing garbled letters for diacritic marked samskrit names, hence the grab.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by ramana »

Thanks. Good info. BTW Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in US had a show in the series Nova on the first Emperor Chin who unified China after the war of Three kingdoms (~220BC) where they showed two main weapons developed during that period: a cross bow conversion kit which allows converting any long bow to cross bow form, cast metal arrows, and a halberd tip for spears (with four rivets instead of normal three rivets to handle shock of engaging mounted horsemen) to engage cavalry. All these were made in state supported armories with stamps to ensure traceability.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by ramana »

Also what pdf was the description form?
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Avarachan »

Happy Lachit Divas!

http://satyameva-jayate.org/2010/11/24/ ... barphukan/
Some of you would know that 24 November is celebrated as “Lachit Divas” across Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan and the victory of the Assamese army at the Battle of Saraighat. Lachit Barphukan also has a medal named after him that is awarded to the best cadet passing out of the NDA. As you go about your day today, please take a moment to remember this great hero of India…and please do share this story with others who may not be familiar with his story…
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

ramana wrote:Also what pdf was the description form?
This is from a thesis of a scholar on farcical attribution of Alexander's gold medallion to defeat of Porus.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Gupta Bows (Line Drawings from Gupta Gold Coinage)

Image
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Other Gupta Arms - Battleaxe and other swords

Image
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by ramana »

Nice work Murugan.

I know you collect ancient coins.

Hope not just gold ones!
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

:D

Thank You RamanaGaru!

Just not Gold... of course...
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

Here is a detailed and interesting account of a so called Porus Medallion

This is a research paper By Dr Shailen Bhandare, University of Oxford, Ashmolean Museum. He is systematically refuting all the claims made by diffusionists. Explaining with it wars of ancient world, weapons, battles, economics and dresses of warriors. Purely a numismatic account but worth reading as many ancient warfare info is given.

Not Just a Pretty Face



Image
The ‘Porus Medallion’in the British Museum,

Image
The second ‘Porus Medallion’


Image
Tetradrachm with Archer and Elephant

Image
Silver plates,reportedly from the OxusTreasure, with depiction of elephant riders
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by ramana »

wig wrote: Evolution of Indian military: From Panipat to Festubert

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/indi ... 541983.cms

Tracing the evolution of Indian military from 'Army of Hindustan' in the 18th century to the Indian Army in WWI
Was Part II ever published in TOI?
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Yagnasri »

I do not think so. I tried google chacha and found nothing.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by ramana »

Lets contact the author and encourage him. Looks like comments in TOI could have discouraged him...
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by peter »

Seva di Var: Were you able to find the original manuscript? Which book has the translation and by whom? What does it say about escape of Shivaji from Delhi?
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Virendra »

@Peter
Name - Shivaji Bhakha Sources & Nationalism
Published - 2001 by Books India International
Author - Mahendra Pratap Singh
According to the author, the original lies at Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jaipur. They didn't express knowledge of the manuscript.
But they told me that if I could visit and find what I need in their catalog, then I can fetch a scanned copy of the same.

I will be going back in a month. will try to fetch the original.
If possible & needed, I'll do a commentary on Seva Di Var. Will decide only after I have access to the original langauge content.

I'm also translating Rajasthani letters of Parkaldas etc into proper Hindi (work in progress).
Jadunath Sarkar had only done a summary translation of those in English.
There were a few gaps and moreover I think Shivaji's history deserves to be broadcasted into masses in Hindi - the mass language. He's the hero of masses after all.

Will cover in next post about author's interesting theory on how Shivaji managed to esecape, what his route was etc.

Regards,
Virendra
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by peter »

Virendra wrote:@Peter
Name - Shivaji Bhakha Sources & Nationalism
Published - 2001 by Books India International
Author - Mahendra Pratap Singh
According to the author, the original lies at Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jaipur. They didn't express knowledge of the manuscript.
But they told me that if I could visit and find what I need in their catalog, then I can fetch a scanned copy of the same.

I will be going back in a month. will try to fetch the original.
If possible & needed, I'll do a commentary on Seva Di Var. Will decide only after I have access to the original langauge content.

I'm also translating Rajasthani letters of Parkaldas etc into proper Hindi (work in progress).
Jadunath Sarkar had only done a summary translation of those in English.
There were a few gaps and moreover I think Shivaji's history deserves to be broadcasted into masses in Hindi - the mass language. He's the hero of masses after all.

Will cover in next post about author's interesting theory on how Shivaji managed to esecape, what his route was etc.

Regards,
Virendra
Great to hear about your efforts. How many letters did Parkaldas write?
Does he have info on Raj Singh of Udaipur and Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur? If you can lay hands on another munshi at Jaipur court who wrote Haft Anjuman, Udairaj, you will be making an awesome addition to the mediveal historiography.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_28990 »

Here is a video I made on one of the most interesting episodes in ancient world history: the battle of Hydaspes between Alexander and Porus. This was chiefly inspired by what I read about Marshal Zhukov's talk at the IMA

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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by deejay »

Maxratul ji, superb effort there.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_22539 »

^Yep, superb video Maxratul. Where did you get the music from, perhaps Deus Ex?
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_28990 »

Thank you, it is much appreciated

Arun, yes the music is Icarus from Deus Ex The Human Revolution.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by NRao »

maxratul wrote:Here is a video I made on one of the most interesting episodes in ancient world history: the battle of Hydaspes between Alexander and Porus. This was chiefly inspired by what I read about Marshal Zhukov's talk at the IMA
Very nice.

One suggestion. Please complete the mantra:

satyameva jayate nānṛtaṁ

सत्यमेव जयते नानृतं


Should not leave mantras half quoted. They have no meaning.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_28990 »

NRaoji ,Thank you for the feedback. I was only aware of the bit which is used as the national motto. Thanks to you, I have now read the entire verse. It is beautiful.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by member_22539 »

The usual explanation given by westeners is that Alexander was magnanimous more as a rearguard action that he took as he retreated. The reason they cite for him ending his campaign is the homesick macedonian core of his army almost rebelling. They had just fought their toughest battle with a king who they hear is one of the small guys. After that they hear about the Nanda armies numbering in the lakhs and war elephants numbering in the thousands, which pretty much drains all the fight in them.

Hence, the potrayal is that of a reluctant Alexander abandoning his campaign due to negative feedback from his soldiers as well as his much discussed ill health.

But frankly, maxratul's reasoning sounds more logical. The size of the Nanda armies must have helped the decision not to try again, as much as the defeat at the hands of a so called minor king. Regardless, as far as western historians were concerned, their blue-eyed boy must come out smelling like roses, hence the propaganda.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Hobbes »

Maxratul, a truly magnificent effort!
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Singha »

alaksindr also had his long time horse bucephalus killed in the battle of hydaspes. thats like losing a brother to him. he buried the horse and marked the spot as bucephala per wiki, modern town of jalalpur sharif on west bank of jhelum.

secondly every town on the indus in the march south was hostile and had to be taken bitterly to establish camp and loot resources for survival. there was a progressive loss of morale on the march to karachi and the army was a pale shadow of its self.

baluchi guides completed the process by misleading them into the makran desert and leaving them to die (he wanted his fleet to touch shore at some points to link the land and water columns but this never happened)

i would imagine hardly 20% of his hydaspes army limped into babylon, tail tucked firmly between their legs. the fact that none of his short lived hellenic colony successors the dimarchii made any foray into main part of north india means they neither had the resources nor the morale for that. they faded away in due course after being islanded off from the main greek homeland.

even before hydaspes he had been having a very rough time with the mountain tribes of what is today tajikistan, khyber agency, northern areas.....the afpak tribes as always are keen on any fight.
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Murugan »

According to present understanding Alexander the Gay was a Terrorist

https://www.academia.edu/2242536/Alexan ... l_Accuracy

Also know more about Indo-Greeks from the same author

https://www.academia.edu/13099844/Who_W ... ndo-Greeks
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Rahul M »

i would imagine hardly 20% of his hydaspes army limped into babylon, tail tucked firmly between their legs. the fact that none of his short lived hellenic colony successors the dimarchii made any foray into main part of north india means they neither had the resources nor the morale for that. they faded away in due course after being islanded off from the main greek homeland.
diadochi ??


menander/milinda did lead an expedition into the heartland upto patna/kusumpur and captured some areas. which is why he, and not alexander finds mention in Indian texts.
Paul
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Paul »

Always curious as to why the western Historians do not play up Menander as the first western comqueror of India? Is it because he was a Buddhist..
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Singha »

^^ could be because he was supposed to liberal and generous and not the usual destroyer and burner of civlizations , could be he was at peace with neighbours and did not fight major battles, or could be because he is not from greece anymore but born in bharat or bactria and only alaksindr who sortied out of macedonia is the one true god.

it is said the yavanas retreated from pataliputra back to the main grounds after kalinga threatened them with a show of force. this per the wiki entry on greek kingdoms in india.

ultimately these tiny elites of a different ethnic stock tend to disappear as happened with the mongol elite in khorasan after the king khans empire got divided into four pieces. same happened to the turko-persian mughal elites in delhi......has anyone traced their bloodlines to the present day ? there must have been 100s of nobles and high level officials ......
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Re: Historical Battles in Ancient & Medieval Bharat

Post by Singha »

alaksindr indulged in widespread killing of captives, civilians, enslavement in his punjab and sindh campaigns

no different from ghazis later

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallian_Campaign
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