4.1.1 Infrastructure
Infrastructure obviously means the sport infrastructure for competition and training, but also the general infrastructure of a city such as airports, roads, telecommunication, hotels, housings (athletes, media and officials), entertainment facilities, fair grounds, parks, etc.
All infrastructure left after an event should fit into the city’s development. Today temporary constructions can avoid negative legacies such as oversized and extraneous facilities. Examples are a movable velodrome (Olympics, Atlanta 1996), a temporary 50m indoor pool in a fair hall (FINA World Cup, Fukuoka 2001) or an athletic stadium transformed into a football stadium (Commonwealth Games, Manchester 2002). Szymanski (2002) supports this idea. He claims that all spending should be directed at the most productive activities (p. 3).
4.1.2 Knowledge, Skill-development and Education
The host population gains knowledge and skills from staging a major sporting event. Employees and volunteers achieve skills and knowledge in event organization, human resource management, security, hospitality, service, etc. Spectators and volunteers learn to use public transportation and are acquainted with environmental projects. They also gain greater knowledge about the history of their city and country, culture and other issues.
4.1.3 Image
Major sporting events have tremendous symbolic significance and form, they reposition or solidify the image of a city, region and country.
Usually events create a positive imagery and the city and politicians can “bask in [its] reflected glory” (Snyder, Lassegard & Ford, 1986). {Politicians here are already good at it }On the other hand, the worldwide exposure of the event, the host city and its culture depends on the media representatives and cannot be entirely controlled by the organisers (Preuß & Messing, 2002). Negative incidences such as a bomb attack, hooligans, organizational shortcomings or just bad weather also influence the image of the host. Not only negative incidents, but also general bad attributes can be transported through a mega event to millions of potential visitors, customers or business partners. Exaggerated nationalism or unfair spectator behaviour spoils hospitality, and poverty and crime create doubts about a potential tourism destination.
4.1.4 Emotions
Mega sport events give politicians a common vision to gain international prestige, citizens are emotionally involved and private industry is inspired to welcome an extraordinary and worldwide event. The pride of hosting such an event creates local identification, vision and motivation. An example is the Olympic Games in Seoul 1988 which created a national perspective, a feeling of vitality, participation, recognition, and an international perception of being modern and technologically up-to-date (Denis, Dischereit, Song, & Werning, 1988, p. 229). The Chinese are keen to demonstrate their increasing economic importance through the Olympics in 2008 (Lin, 2004).
Private industry is stimulated by the expected influx of money and a potential positive post-event legacy. This may change the readiness to invest instead of saving (Thurow, 2004).
The announcement of the event leads to a programme of anticipatory investment. Directly, or indirectly it is the catalyst for a number of ‘piggy-back’ events (which in turn promote further investment).
And during the event itself, there is a boost to local demand. While all of these boost the local economy in the short-term, the key to any longer-term effects lies in whether and how these leave a permanent legacy in the infrastructure, or in industry competencies (Swann, 2001, pp. 2–3).
There are several evidences from Olympic Games that these anticipatory investments have taken place. Critically seen, some have created oversupply (Preuss, 2004; Teigland, 1996).
Negative emotions may also be caused if new event facilities use space of former workers’ areas. Then citizens living there suffer from expropriation and relocation, but also from gentrification of their area, which leads to a loss of their social environment (Garcia, 1993, p. 260; Cox, Darcy & Bounds, 1994, p. 75; Lenskyj, 1996, p. 395; Preuss, 2006).
4.1.5 Networks
International sport federations, media, politics, etc., need to cooperate in order to stage an event successfully. Their interaction creates networks. In general events improve political networks, such as close partnership with the central government. In particular the greater knowledge of sport, networks between politicians and sport federations and the image of being a sport city increase the affiliation to sport. Grassroots coaching programs, facilities for schools, sport for all, and additional sport events may be the result.
4.1.6 Culture
Major sporting events produce cultural ideas, cultural identity and cultural products. Opening ceremonies especially include a cultural-artistic aspect which is a condensed display of the host country’s culture. A positive cultural image, increased awareness, new infrastructure and additional tourist products, combined with the soft factor of better service quality have a great potential to increase tourism in the long-term (Solberg & Preuss, 2006). Barcelona for instance used the Olympics to transform its infrastructure to become a “cultural city” (Garcia, 1993). The cultural presentation educates the host population and forces them to address their history. For example, there was increased awareness of aboriginal history in Australia during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, and increased understanding of Mormon traditions in the USA during the 2002 Salt Lake Olympic Winter Games. However, it is critical that the cultural awareness betters the situation of these minorities. Another example is “The Spirit of Friendship Festival”, which was launched for the Commonwealth Games 2002 and aimed to celebrate the Commonwealth, thus leaving a cultural legacy. “It was a nationwide programme [and was …] set out to communicate the visual and performing arts and cultural traditions of countries in the Commonwealth” (Faber Maunsell 2004, p. 24).