PAKISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, AND AL-QAEDA
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EXPLAINING THE PHENOMENON
IRAN, HEZBOLLAH, AND AL-QAEDA
PAKISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, AND...
EGYPT, THE MUSLIM BROTHERHOOD, AND...
UNWISE SPREAD OF WESTERN TTPs...
UNDERESTIMATING THE OPPOSITION
Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence (ISI) Directorate's connection to the British should come as no surprise, given that the Pakistani army emerged out of the British Indian army after India gained its independence from the British Empire in 1947.40 In fact, Major General R. Cawthome, a British army officer, formed the Pakistani ISI Directorate in 1948, after the unsatisfactory performance of Pakistani intelligence during the Indo-Pakistani War over Kashmir in 1947–1948.41 Moreover, Daveed Gartenstein-Ross notes that “the senior echelons [of the Pakistani army] were still British officers who had opted to stay on [after independence],” and importantly, “they were in turn succeeded by their native clones, men who saw the army as a unique institution, separate and apart from the rest of civil society and authority.”42 Thus, any intelligence training that British officers possessed at the time of their transfer to the Pakistani military was more than likely disseminated to their subordinates and successors. In other words, Pakistan's ISI has been infused with British Intelligence TTPs since its inception.
In time, the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) and ISI developed a working relationship, which began during the Nixon Administration, and focused on the Khalistan movement in the Punjab43—a campaign to establish a separate and independent Sikh state of Khalistan in the Indian state of Punjab.44 Perhaps the best-known relationship between the ISI and the IC involved the CIA and the Afghan mujahedeen in the 1980s. According to Gartenstein-Ross, “the relationship between the CIA and ISI developed on the ISI's terms, with Zia [the president of Pakistan from 1978 to 1988] minimizing contact between the Americans and the Afghan mujahideen. This arrangement was mutually advantageous. It gave the Americans plausible deniability, gave the Pakistanis access to a large amount of American money, and allowed Pakistani officials to forge their own relationships with the mujahideen.”45
Additionally, the relationship between the ISI and the CIA resulted in the enhancement of the ISI's covert intelligence capabilities.46 For example, several ISI personnel received intelligence training in the U.S., and the CIA also attached experts to the ISI as operational advisors.47
Likewise, the ISI established contacts with large numbers of mujahedeen commanders, supplying them with weapons,48 and presumably at least some rudimentary intelligence training, given the nature of the Pakistani organization as an intelligence agency. For example, agents would have to be trained in surveillance and counter-surveillance of targets; maneuvering undetected behind enemy lines; clandestine communications; and conducting battle damage assessments, among other basic intelligence practices. Additionally, more advanced intelligence tradecraft would have had to be provided to some mujahedeen for the purposes of agent handling and intelligence collection in Soviet-occupied areas denied to the Pakistani ISI and the CIA. Moreover, during this time the ISI established a relationship with Osama bin Laden, the future leader of al-Qaeda.49
In 1989, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops from Afghanistan, and with it the U.S.'s covert support for the mujahedeen ended. However, the American endeavor, as noted by former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf, resulted in “short-term gain for longer-term pain,”50 meaning that the immediate gain achieved by the U.S. in supporting the mujahedeen would cause lasting problems for the country. For example, in his memoir Musharraf laments that
We helped create the mujahideen, fired them with religious zeal in seminaries, armed them, paid them, fed them, and sent them to a jihad against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. We did not stop to think how we would divert them to productive life after the jihad was won. This mistake cost Afghanistan and Pakistan more dearly than any other country. Neither did the United States realize what a rich, educated person like Osama bin Laden might later do with the organization that we all had enabled him to establish.51
Later, in May 1996, bin Laden arrived in Jalalabad, Afghanistan, along with various Arabs who had left the country after the Soviets had withdrawn.52 And while Musharraf asserted in his 2006 memoir, In the Line of Fire, that al-Qaeda and other radicals including “Uzbeks, Bangladeshis, Chechens, Chinese Uygurs, and Muslims from south India, Europe, America, and even Australia started to arrive in Afghanistan to help the Taliban cause,”53 Mark J. Roberts has suggested that Pakistan's motives for supporting bin Laden were to solidify the Taliban's control over the country, and then establish training camps for Kashmiri militants.54 In fact, the ISI allegedly asked Saudi Arabian Intelligence for prior permission to sponsor bin Laden since the ISI received Saudi funds to operate madrassas in Pakistan, and did not want to sour its relationship with the Kingdom.55 And while Musharraf suggests that bin Laden was in Afghanistan merely to assist the Taliban, Roberts's assertion that the relationship between bin Laden and Pakistan was more complex seems accurate. For example, the ISI requested permission from the Saudi Kingdom to sponsor bin Laden, an important point because by this time the Saudi government disapproved of Osama and may have attempted to assassinate him.56 But bin Laden had the ability to establish training camps and attract large numbers of radical followers who could assist the ISI in waging a covert war against India in Kashmir, which was exactly what the ISI wanted, and therefore justified its requesting permission from the Saudis who might have been offended if not consulted.57 In fact, according to Roberts:
Pakistani support to Kashmiri jihadists “fundamentally changed the nature of the struggle. … Pakistani backing enabled the Kashmiris to sustain and expand what other- wise might have been a limited and short-lived struggle.” This expanded the conflict's scope by “helping organize and insert large numbers of foreign militants into the struggle.” The foreign fighters were “trained in the killing fields of Afghanistan and paid and supplied” by ISI. As late as 2002, 25 to 50 percent of the terrorists fighting in Kashmir were ISI-recruited foreign fighters, not Kashmiris.58
Furthermore, Roberts notes that ISI personnel did not limit themselves to funding al-Qaeda training camps, but also actively participated in training militants.59 In fact, in 1998, when then-U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes against al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan in retaliation for the organization's role in the bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, bin Laden escaped but several ISI officers were killed in the attack.60 Given the fact that Pakistani intelligence officers were actively training militants in al-Qaeda training camps, and based on the fact that intelligence officers instructed courses, the training they provided most probably included ISI and CIA TTPs because those techniques were known to both the ISI and Hezbollah, and both disseminated their intelligence knowledge to al-Qaeda. This conclusion is further supported by author Lawrence Wright's claims that al-Qaeda ran several camps focused on intelligence and counterintelligence training. Wright also noted that intelligence training was part of al-Qaeda's course offerings at camps in Afghanistan prior to 9/11.61
The ISI's relationship with al-Qaeda persisted until 2001, when the U.S. issued an ultimatum.62 According to former President Musharraf, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage stated strongly that
… not only that we [the Pakistani government] had to decide whether we were with America or with the terrorists, but that if we chose the terrorists, then we should be prepared to be bombed back to the Stone Age. This was a shockingly barefaced threat, but it was obvious that the United States had decided to hit back, and hit back hard.63
Despite that warning, according to Gartenstein-Ross, the ISI–al-Qaeda links continued as late as 2008, as noted by U.S. documents provided to the Pakistani government linking at least one retired ISI intelligence officer with al-Qaeda and the Taliban.64
In sum, as with Iran, Pakistan's ISI Directorate was created and staffed by British army officers whose intelligence knowledge formed the core of the organization. Later, the ISI's intelligence TTPs were enhanced by CIA training as both the ISI and CIA battled, by proxy, the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. During the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the ISI established links with the mujahedeen, and to an eccentric millionaire by the name of Osama bin Laden. After the withdrawal of the Soviet army from Afghanistan, the ISI maintained its relationship with former mujahedeen, including bin Laden, as it fought a covert battle with India in Kashmir. The ISI had funded, supplied, and trained the Taliban, al-Qaeda, and other groups of radical militants that made their way to Afghanistan during the 1990s as part of their covert war against India in Kashmir. Thus, intelligence TTPs were in all likelihood proliferated from ISI, which itself originated with the British, and included TTPs from the CIA, as part of the spider web of intelligence relationships among the major powers and their allies, to al-Qaeda.